In physical cosmology, "structure formation" refers to the formation of galaxies, galaxy clusters and larger structures from small early density fluctuations. The Universe, as is now known from observations of the cosmic microwave background radiation, began in a hot, dense, nearly uniform state approximately 13.8 billion years ago. However, looking in the sky today, we see structures on all scales, from stars and planets to galaxies and, on still larger scales still, galaxy clusters and sheet-like structures of galaxies separated by enormous voids containing few galaxies. Structure formation attempts to model how these structures formed by gravitational instability of small early density ripples.
The modern Lambda-CDM model is successful at predicting the observed large-scale distribution of galaxies, clusters and voids; but on the scale of individual galaxies there are many complications due to highly nonlinear processes involving baryonic physics, gas heating and cooling, star formation and feedback. Understanding the processes of galaxy formation is a major topic of modern cosmology research, both via observations such as the Hubble Ultra-Deep Field and via large computer simulations.
Under present models, the structure of the visible universe was formed in the following stages:
The theory of what happened after the universe's first 400,000 years is one of hierarchical structure formation: the smaller gravitationally bound structures such as matter peaks containing the first stars and stellar clusters formed first, and these subsequently merged together with gas and dark matter to form galaxies, followed by groups, clusters and superclusters of galaxies.
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